The world meets coffee through Turks · 1500s, the century of coffee that stirred the Ottoman Empire

1567

The world meets coffee through Turks 1500s, the century of coffee that stirred the Ottoman Empire

In the article titled “Americans Should Thank Ottoman Sultan Selim I for Coffee Shops,” published in The Washington Post, it is mentioned that “coffee has its roots in Ottoman history, and the Ottoman Empire has shaped the course of history and cultural life in Europe and America.” The article further asserts, “We all owe important parts of our culture and history to the Ottoman Empire, especially to Sultan Selim I, a sultan who lived 500 years ago.”

Coffee, known in the Middle East and the Mediterranean region since the 12th century, only became a widely enjoyed beverage in the 14th century. Regarding the origin of the word “coffee,” the most widely accepted view suggests that it comes from the major coffee-producing center in Southern Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia) called kaffa, making the high plateau region in Africa a possible birthplace of coffee. According to this perspective, coffee was brought from Abyssinia to Yemen and later cultivated in this region.

It is believed that the discovery of coffee is attributed to Abu'l-Hassan al-Shadhili (d. 1260), the founder of the Shadhili order. This belief led the coffee shopkeepers to consider Sheikh alShadhili as their “patron saint,” and until the end of the Ottoman era, signs saying "Oh, the presence of Sheikh al-Shadhili” were hung in coffee shops in İstanbul, expressing this sentiment. Coffee, known in Yemen and later in Mecca and Cairo, is said to have been brought to İstanbul by merchants in 1519, following the conquest of Egypt by Yavuz Sultan Selim.129

Coffee initially emerged as a food in Ethiopia. It gained recognition in Yemen in the early 15th century and gradually became a popular beverage from the end of that century onward. By the early 16th century, it had reached Mecca, later Cairo, and by the mid-17th century, it had made its way to significant European centers, finally reaching İstanbul.

The definitive entry of coffee into Ottoman territories and the exact starting date of its usage

Picture 1 Roasted coffee

beans in İstanbul, Anatolia, and Rumelia are subjects of debate. Kâtip Çelebi's mention in 1543 that coffee arrived in İstanbul by ship but faced resistance due to prohibitive fatwas, coupled with reports from Cezîrî in the same year during the Hajj season in Mecca that the Sultan had prohibited coffee, suggests that coffee consumption in İstanbul dates back much earlier. The existence of decrees in the first half of the 16th century ordering the closure of coffeehouses also indicates that coffee was in use much earlier. Âlî Mustafa Efendi mentions 1553 as the date of the opening of the first coffeehouses in İstanbul, while Peçuylu İbrahim Efendi cites 1555.

Various opinions on the consumption of coffee were put forth by the Ottoman scholars. While Mehmed Bedreddin Kosonî, who served as the

chief physician to Sultan Süleyman the Magnificent, did not find coffee harmful from a medical perspective and expressed the view that it might have some benefits if consumed in moderation, coffee was generally deemed harmful for political reasons, leading to the issuance of fatwas against it. In the 16th century, the fatwas on coffee from two Grand Muftis held significant importance. One of these fatwas belongs to Ebussuud Efendi, and the other to Bostanzâde Mehmed Efendi. Ebussuud Efendi, considering the state of coffeehouses, issued a fatwa against coffee and coffeehouses, claiming that it is deemed haram because it is the drink of “wrongdoers.” According to him, the “people of desires” gather in coffeehouses to play backgammon and chess, consume intoxicating syrups, and then drink coffee. These individuals

neglect their prayers, so such places should be closed. In one of his fatwas, Ebussuud Efendi even stated that considering coffee permissible solely for its medical benefits, without the intention of passing the time, necessitates a renewal of faith out of caution.130 Sheikh-ulIslâm Bostanzâde Mehmed Efendi, during his first tenure as the chief jurisconsult, issued a favorable fatwa regarding coffee. According to this fatwa dated 1592, coffee is not an intoxicating substance; instead, it is a beverage with health benefits.

The coffee issue was one of the central topics occupying the Ottoman agenda in the 16th century. It took almost half a century from its discovery as an enjoyable beverage to its consumption reaching levels that could be considered addictive. From the second half of the 16th century onwards, we encounter numerous archival records on this matter. In 1559, a decree was issued to the judge of Homs to close coffeehouses.131 In 1565, the closure of coffeehouses in Aleppo and Jerusalem was similarly requested through a decree.132 In 1566, the judge of Jerusalem, who had demolished a centuries-old fountain to build a coffeehouse, was relieved of his duties.133 In 1567, the closure of coffeehouses in Eyüp was demanded, and permission for the construction of new coffeehouses was denied.134 In 1568, existing decrees ordering the closure of coffeehouses in İstanbul were reinforced, urging their immediate closure.135 In 1570, an intriguing record surfaced indicating the rewarding of three janissaries who had been appointed to prepare and bring coffee in the army.136

In the year 1573, a decree sent to the GovernorGeneral of Egypt highlighted that, until that year, no taxes had been levied on imported coffee. It was reported that due to this tax exemption,

many merchants had abandoned importing spices and had begun importing coffee. Consequently, the decree called for the imposition of customs duties on coffee, similar to those applied to spices.137 In 1578, a decree addressed to the Governors of Aydın and Tire stated: “There are still coffeehouses in your province where various addicts gather, leading to various maladies, and they neglect their duties. Now, a decree has been issued for the closure of coffeehouses in Tire and other places. I order you to promptly eliminate the coffeehouses in your province and prevent any opposition to my orders.”138 In the years 1583 and 1585, multiple decrees were issued for the closure of coffeehouses in İstanbul.139 Despite numerous prohibition decrees, the widespread coffee addiction in almost every corner of Ottoman territories during the 16th century proved difficult to curb.

Despite these prohibitions, coffee consumption in İstanbul continued to increase. According to D'Ohsson, during the reigns of Sultan Selim II and Sultan Murad III, the number of coffeehouses in İstanbul, including small coffee shops, was around 600. With the interest of the ulema class, these places became venues for scholarly discussions and sometimes even became locations where the public was incited during various rebellions. For this reason, throughout the 17th century, there were occasional bans on opening such places. During the reign of Sultan Ahmed I, it is known that the Grand Viziers Dervish and Nasuh Pashas closed down coffeehouses. The most severe reaction was observed during the reign of Sultan Murad IV. Upon news that the fire that started in Cibali on August 26, 1633, and affected a significant part of the city was caused by people smoking tobacco in coffeehouses, a fatwa was obtained from the

Picture 2 A 1620 miniature

of a coffeehouse (Chester Beatty Turkish Collection, T

439.9)

Sheikh-ul-Islâm Ahi Zade Huseyin Efendi, stating that coffee and tobacco were “innovations of evil” based on the suggestion of Kadizade Mehmed Efendi. With a decree dated September 2, 1633, all coffeehouses in Ottoman cities, especially İstanbul, were closed. Additionally, around 120 coffee shops in Eyüp and its surroundings were demolished.

In the 17th century, with the offering of coffee during official state ceremonies and its growing significance in rituals, coffee consumption increased significantly. The widespread adoption of coffee into daily consumption elevated the importance of coffee trade. Each year, half of the 5,000 tons of coffee imported from Yemen to Egypt was transported to İstanbul and other Ottoman cities. However, due to its high demand and irregular supply to İstanbul, shortages occurred, leading to increased prices. Coffee was so highly sought after that substances like, chickpeas, dried chestnuts, bulghur, almonds, etc., were even used in its preparation. Coffee was mainly the responsibility of the perfume merchants, and the shops in İstanbul where it was sold were well-known. According to Evliya Çelebi, the number of coffee-selling merchants in İstanbul was around 500, with approximately 300 shops.

Despite becoming a staple in daily consumption, surplus coffee was allowed to be exported to European countries. In the mid-17th century, the consumption of coffee began to spread in major European cities, and the interest in Yemeni coffee increased. The first coffeehouse in Venice opened in 1615, and by 1645, they had spread throughout Italy. In 1644, coffeehouses were established in Marseille, followed by London in 1650, Vienna in 1651, and Paris in 1669.140

In the seventeenth century, when European merchants took the coffee they observed in the

Ottoman Empire back to their own lands, the first political debates about coffee emerged in Europe. Coffee, being generally recognized as a Muslim beverage, incurred the wrath of the Pope, who initially prohibited Christians from drinking it. However, as the spread of coffee could not be prevented, finally, in the mid-17th century, Pope VIII. Clement issued a fatwa stating that drinking coffee would not be considered a sin. Around the mid-17th century, coffee, brought to America by the Spaniards, also spread across the New World. Thus, it gained worldwide fame and popularity, transcending from the East to the West.

The contemporary witness, Kâtip Çelebi, writes the following about coffee:

“It originated in the land of Yemen and spread like tobacco throughout the world. Some sheikhs settled in the mountains of Yemen with their dervishes and ground the beans to make a type of food, while others roasted them and drank the extracted liquid. The people of Yemen witnessed these practices, and sheikhs, sufis, and others began to use it.” Around 1453, when it first arrived in Türkiye by ship, coffee was declared forbidden, and fatwas were issued.

They claimed, “Apart from being scalding, the communal consumption of coffee is akin to the ways of deviants who have gone astray from the right path.” According to Ebu's-Suud Efendi, the ships bringing coffee were reportedly pierced, and the coffee cargo was sunk into the sea. However, these prohibitions and harsh measures were ineffective, and the issued fatwas and words spoken did not resonate with the public. Coffeehouses were sporadically opened, gaining significant enthusiasm and popularity. Especially among connoisseurs, it increased joy, adding vitality to life, making it acceptable to sacrifice oneself for a cup. Subsequent Grand Muftis issued fatwas declaring coffee permissible.

Picture 3 A bazaar in İstanbul (Views of the

Bosphorus and Constantinople, by Miss Pardoe, with pictures drawn

from nature by W.H.

Bartlett)

The fate of coffeehouses varied over several years, with some being prohibited and others allowed. After 1592, it ceased to be considered forbidden by religious authorities and could openly be consumed, leading to the widespread opening of coffeehouses on every street corner. The public, with little to occupy their time, engaged in various activities. Commercial activities came to a halt, and people from the sultan to beggars found amusement in socializing. Sultan Murad Khan, realizing the impact of this trend, issued a decree out of compassion for the people, ordering the closure of all coffeehouses in the entire country. Since then, İstanbul's coffeehouses resemble the devastated and desolate heart of an ignorant person. Owners of coffeehouses, still hopeful of reopening, did not dismantle but closed down their establishments. Later, most, if not all, were dismantled to make way for other shops. However, in cities and towns other than İstanbul, coffeehouses resumed their operations as before. Such matters are boundless and do not readily accept prohibition.141

Ahmet Refik, one of the late historians of the Ottoman Empire, shares intriguing details about coffee:

"The literate and cultured elite of İstanbul found themselves a delightful gathering place. In no time, coffeehouses became gathering spots for

refined individuals. Those who frequented these coffeehouses were not the riffraff of İstanbul. Poets, scholars, and those knowledgeable in arts and sciences were welcomed. In every coffeehouse, twenty or thirty gatherings would form in various corners. Some places were dedicated to reading and listening to books, while others were for playing backgammon and chess or enjoying the recitation of the latest ecstatic poems and qasidas. In these coffeehouses, friends and acquaintances would gather, hosting feasts to create a joyful atmosphere."

The public's increasing interest in coffee further multiplied the number of coffeehouses. Coffeehouses gained more and more popularity. Disgraced judges and scholars became inseparable from these gatherings. They sought the pleasure they had lost in their duties in these places. The congregation of scholars and men of taste in coffeehouses aroused suspicions among the state officials. Sermons against this practice began in mosques. Not stopping at issuing harmless coffee-related fatwas, when the fatwas continued to emerge, government officials became worried. Yet, they did not refrain from secretly attending coffeehouses. This time, coffeehouses with the name koltuk kahvesi (armchair coffee) opened in hidden alleyways. The public would either visit these coffeehouses or secretly enter through the back doors behind the shops to enjoy their coffee and have a good time. After the reign of Sultan Murad III, the number of coffeehouses increased so much that preventing people from drinking coffee became impossible. The muftis changed their tune. This time, they started saying, “It doesn't turn into coal, so it's permissible to drink.” Suddenly, everything became permissible. Scholars flocked to coffeehouses in droves. Even the highestranking viziers of the state built coffeehouses to

Picture 4 A coffee house near Tophane (Picture of

Constantinople and the Banks of the Bosphorus,

Antoine Ignace Melling,

1809)

increase their income and sold coffee to the public in their shops.142

Coffeehouses and the cultural environment surrounding them have attracted the attention of Western travelers and artists. There is so much culture that has developed around Turkish coffee and coffeehouses that some Western travelers have written about it exclusively. Many words related to coffee and coffeehouse culture in Greek are very similar, with little change, to Turkish. These include kafes (kahve - coffee), cezves (cezve - coffee pot), fincani (fincan - cup), tabis (tabi - saucer), yedeki (yedek - spare), delves (telve - coffee grounds), kavurdistiri (kavurucu -

roaster), kaynaki (kaynak - boiler), theryaklis (tiryaki - coffee addict), briki, kafenes (kahve evi, kahvehane - coffeehouse), kafebriki, and kafekuti.143

Prohibition of Closing Existing Coffeehouses and Opening New Ones

A decree to the qadi of Eyüp addressing the prohibition of selling wine and Tatar boza, playing musical instruments, and engaging in backgammon and chess in the markets. The decree also specifies the closure of coffeehouses with a ban on opening new ones, the apprehension and punishment of prostitutes, and

advising the tradesmen not to sell short in Eyüp.

September 4, 1567

Decree to the Qadi of Eyüp:

It has been reported that immoral activities and prostitution are taking place in the town of Eyüp and its surrounding neighborhoods. I do not condone actions contrary to Sharia law. Investigate and inspect the neighborhoods. If alcohol is consumed or Tatar boza is produced, intervene and prevent it. If there are prostitutes in the rooms, remove and expel them. It is my command to address the rights of those engaging in immorality and prostitution.

Always remain vigilant in preventing those who consume alcohol and engage in Tatar boza production, incarcerate the found prostitutes, and henceforth admonish and emphasize to the imams, muezzins, and neighborhood supervisors appropriately so that from this day forward, they do not harbor individuals engaging in immoral, prostitute, and other wicked activities. Defeat them; report disobedient ones to authorities.

Henceforth, if a prostitute is found in a neighborhood or there are those engaging in immoral and wicked deeds, and the imam and muezzin fail to prevent them and report them to the authorities, they should be aware that the treatment meted out to them will be similar. Be cautious accordingly.

Those engaging in immoral and wicked deeds, if they are officials of the state, should come and report accordingly, for their well-being will not be assured, and various penalties will be

imposed.

Concerning subaşılar (soubashis), it has been observed that they keep prostitutes, thieves, and wicked individuals in secluded places, take their gold and coins, release them, and celebrate weddings with music, paying a fee to soubashis. Take note and admonish them, so that whenever a prostitute is apprehended, they bring them, apply the necessary legal procedures, and report those who take their coins and release them. Prohibit those playing backgammon and chess near the mosque and in the market, stop musicians, and ensure that the imams and muezzins do not pray in their neighborhoods and do not protect individuals known for false witnessing. Bring them to court with the help of the town's prominent figures according to the law.

Remove the coffeehouses in the town and do not permit the opening of new ones. Prohibit musical instruments and other things incompatible with Sharia law in the town, leave no one unpunished, and instruct the market residents not to undersell but to sell at the officially determined daily rate. Act against those who behave otherwise.

Record this decree in the records and always act in accordance with its content.

A.DVNS.MHM.d, 7/155

Source: Innovation, Inventions and Quests Among the Turks